Science Notebook

Specific Immunity 

What is a Virus? How do Viruses Work?

What is a virus?

• a complex collection of organic matter 
• able to self-replicate 

What is the structure of a virus? 

• consist of a shell made of protein 

-a strand of DNA or RNA (single or double stranded)

-enzymes for replication and manipulation (of genetic materials)

• genome- the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
• the genome and other molecular machines are used for replication  

How do viruses work?

• must infect some kind of cell
• cells are the hosts for viruses because of their resources 
• they infect the cell to create more virus

How can a virus enter the body?

• inhaling, ingesting
• we take in millions of viruses every second 

What is bigger a virus or bacteria?

• bacteria is bigger that viruses
• a virus is really really tiny 

How do viruses replicate?

• outer protein coat covered in small molecular receptors to bind and join a cell membrane 

-determines which cell the virus is able to infect

• the virus uses several complicated biological pathways to force acceptance of its genetic material or the entire virus itself 
• molecular arsenal hijacks the cells protein manufacturing systems and DNA replication mechanism 
• makes virus shells and fills them with their dna

Compare Viral Tag to what you learned in the flipped classroom video.

• the viruses infected cells (yellow flags attacked the people without flags)

Role of phagocytes in innate or nonspecific immunity

Demo set up

First line of defense- skin 

Immune system First line of defense- (non-specific/ innate) Second line of defense-

Keep out harmful substances such as proteins, virus, bacteria, parasites, fungi (pathogens) To keep out Skin Mucous membranes Stomach acid Inflammatory response (bringing stuff to the fight) Phagocytes(a type of cell inside the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles)

What is the point of the immune system?

Keep out harmful substances such as proteins, virus, bacteria, parasites, fungi

What is the difference between the first line of defense and second line of defense?

The first line is what it has to get through first. The second line is what it goes through next if the first line failed. 

What does innate immunity mean?

Innate is what you are born with.

What is non-specific immunity mean?

The body does not remember the virus, it just attacks it.

What are three examples of first line of defense?

Skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid

What are the two examples of the second line of defense?

Inflammation, phagocytes

What is a pathogen?

The harmful substances your body is trying to keep out

What is a phagocyte?

a type of cell inside the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles

What is major histocompatibility complex II (MHC II)?

MHC= ¨Help Wanted"it is on the outside

What is an antigen?

A toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies

Vaccine Presentations

Polio

• made in 1990's
• has nine ingredients
• non-toxic ingredients- calf bovine serum, neomycin, M 199, vero cells, etc. 
• Polymyxn = most toxic ingredient in high quantities

DTaP

• Has fifteen ingredients
• Most ingredients = toxic in high quantities
• Most ingredients are chemicals 
• used to treat tetanus 
• benign ingredients- ammonium sulfate 

MMR 2

• treats measels, mumps and ruvella 
• 13 ingredients
• all ingredients are benign 

HIB 

• there are 12 ingredients
• non-toxic = sodium chloride , sucrose, saline, lactose
• Hib treats influenza 
• toxic in high quantities- modified mueller, miller medium. formaldehyde

Hepatitis B

• 1st vaccine was made up of 5 ingredients
• 2nd vaccine is made up nine ingredients 
• benign ingredients= phosphate buffer, yeast protein, mineral salts, dextrose, yeast peptone
• toixc in high quantities, formaldehyde, sodium chloride, amino acids, potassium aluminum sulfate 

Hepatitis A

• 16 ingredients
• can cause jaundis
• toxic ingredients= sodium chloride, sodium borate 
• non-toxic= formalin, human diploid cells, aluminum hydroxide 

HPV

• treats STIs
• has 10 ingredients
• has vitamins, amino acids, mineral salt, carbohydrates, amporphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate, sodium chloride, sodium borate, yeast protein, L-histidine, polysorbate 80

Questions

• How much in each?
• research?
• allergies
• how many people experience undesired effects
• how much is "toxic"? age/weight?

Science Assessment #7 Revamp 

Question #13- Fossil fuels 
This video taught me that fossil fuels are made of organic matter, heat, pressure, and time. I also learned that fossil fuels dominate the world's energy sources. They can be abundant or scarce, depending on the fossil fuel type. They're the largest emitter of carbon dioxide. 

Question #3- Water supply
This video taught me that most of our water supply comes from rivers. It also showed how humans are impacting the earth's natural water cycle. The video stated that only 1% of water is above ground. 

Research Paper

Pacific Ocean Pollution and its Effects on Earth

Able Valdivia,  an ocean scientist said, “About 80% of the pollution to oceans comes from the land” . As this quote reveals, the majority of the ocean’s trash is coming from humans themselves. Human activity is causing the majority of the pollution currently threatening our aquatic biome. Ocean pollution in Bodega Bay, which is mostly caused by human waste, is harming the marine life, but a water filter that removes  harmful chemicals released by  trash could slow down the defilement taking place in the ocean.

Oceans are currently being bombarded with copious amounts of ocean pollution, due to the limited recycling of garbage. As the “Save Our Shores” organization stated, “90 percent of floating ocean trash is plastic” (Save Our Shores). This quote represents the fact that there is a significant amount of pollution. This pollution, in particular, is trash. OceanCrusaders.org’s  informational webpage reveals, “Scientists have identified 200 areas declared as ‘dead zones’ where no life organisms can now grow” (Plastic Statistics). Based on the fact that was aforementioned, the trash and other items that are polluting the ocean, are migrating into other areas that were previously holding marine life. If a large amount of this trash moves into particular areas, it can lead to unsafe toxicity levels that damage the ecosystem. This leads to the ‘dead zones’, the previous quote mentioned. There has to be a cause for the alarming exploitations taking place in the oceans, which would consist of human ventures upon the Earth.

The main cause of  ocean contamination is human littering and improper disposal of waste. As said by the notorious National Geographic, “ocean currents corral trillions of decomposing plastic items and other trash into gigantic, swirling garbage patches. One in the North Pacific, known as the Pacific Trash Vortex, is estimated to be the size of Texas” (Marine Pollution). The trash that is being released into the ocean does not move out of the body of water. It stays and it collects, and as the quote says, it can get to the size of a state that is infamously large. The ocean scientist that was previously mentioned, Abel Valdivia, said “more than ⅓ of the shellfish-growing waters of the United States are adversely affected by coastal pollution.”In this particular context, Abel was talking about nonpoint source pollution. This is a result of runoff, which comes from the land, and consists of various vehicles and different types of farms or livestock. This then impacts the oceans by the waters not being able to hold certain species. Human activities are a leading cause for the ocean contamination, which has deadly results on the biodiversity of the ocean.

The increased contamination in the Pacific Ocean is negatively affecting the health, of the marine life and the biodiversity in the aquatic biome. As the science-based BlueVoice organization states, “marine mammals are suffering dramatic rises in devastating illnesses, such as nervous and digestive system problems, liver disease, contaminant-induced immunosuppression, endocrine system damage, reproductive malformations, and growth and development issues”(Bob Bohle). There are various illnesses that can come from the trash that is filling the ocean.  All of which can lead to something far more detrimental. A researcher, Kate, states “693 species had been documented as having encountered plastic debris, with nearly 400 involving entanglement and ingestion” (Good).There are several species that are directly impacted by this issue. Not only do they come in contact with the pollution, but much more can come from it. As Kate said, more than half of the species had been injured by the trash in some way. Not only does the ocean pollution cause illnesses, but they are severe and can lead to death. However, there is a solution that could potentially reduce the harmful results of this worldwide issue.

In order to decrease the amount of chemicals being put into the ocean, the Ocean-Floor Saltwater Filter, which collects highly toxic  water and filters out the harmful chemicals, while keeping the water salty and a maintained pH that is suitable for the marine animals, called  (OSF).As developed by  Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, is a battery that can last ten years or more without problems (Iyer). In order for the solution to work, with minimal fixes, it needs a battery that can keep it running. This environmentally friendly battery will make it so the people running the filters will only need to check on them  every two years for maintenance, and not replacing batteries.As a science-based website states that the Ocean-Floor Saltwater Filter, “exploits natural ocean currents and winds which passively transport garbage towards a collection platform” (Andrew). This prefabricated solution makes it so the trash is already collected. The OSF collects the water that it polluted and filters out the chemicals from the trash, while keeping it marine life friendly. This makes it so the OSF filters out the dirtied water, making it less harmful for the animals.

To conclude, the substantial pollution in the Bodega Bay is a harm and risk to the marine animals who live there. But not only that, it is causing defilement to the Earth that has been around for more time than is comprehensible. This current environmental issue is not only causing harm to the marine animals, but also the humans that are committing the issue. The humans are poisoning the fish, then consume the poisoned fish. Thus, leading to the humans consuming the chemicals as well.

Works cited:

Andrew, Elise. "19 Year Old Develops Machine To Clean The Oceans Of Plastic."IFLScience.

IFLScience, 15 Aug. 2016. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

Bohle, Bob. "The Effects of Ocean Pollution on Marine Mammals." Ocean Pollution and Marine

Mammals – BlueVoice.org. BlueVoice.org, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

Good, Kate. "700 Marine Species Might Go Extinct Because of Plastic Pollution. Here Are 5 Ways

You Can Help!" One Green Planet. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

Iyer, Kavita. "This Flow Battery Can Last a Full 10 Years on Single Charge." TechWorm. N.p., 17

Feb. 2017. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

"Pollution Prevention." Save Our Shores. Save Our Shores, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

"Plastic Statistics." Ocean Crusaders. N.p., 14 Jan. 2015. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.

Society, National Geographic. "Marine Pollution." National Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar.

2017.

Water pH levels 

There were several tests that were completed, however the only one that came with clear results was the pH. The ocean pH was 7.5. The pond pH was 6. The tap water pH 6.5. Although these may not be totally accurate due to the fact that the results were checked forty-eight hours later. 

Fossil Fuels 

Fossil fuels Impacts the fossil fuel Three main

Energy sources that were formed from ancient plants Made by swamps filled with organisms that later died and sank to decompose High energy density Powers industrialization Nonrenewable Largest emitter of carbon dioxide Organic matter Temperature Time Pressure conditions Coal Oil Natural gas

The Water Cycle 

"Amount of Fresh Water VS. Salt Water." Khan Academy. Fig. 1. ed. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag.Khan Academy. Web. 8 Mar. 2017.

 In the graph above, it is showing the amount of fresh water versus salt water. Humans need access to the water, however as the graph shows, there is only about two percent fresh water, most of which is in forms humans do not have access to. This relates to the current environment humans live in because this corresponds to the current drought situation.

Citation: "Average Residence Time for Water Molecules." Khan Academy. Fig. 2 ed. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Khan Academy. Web. 8 Mar. 2017.

The chart above shows the average time for water molecules to stay in organisms. The one that it is held in for the shortest amount of time is living organisms, which is a single week. The longest amount of time is a thousand to ten thousand years, which is glaciers and permafrost. This relates to the current environment humans live in because this shows that the less accessible water is held stays in its residence for longer. 

Intro to Ecology

In our intro to ecology, my science teacher, Neto designed a demo that would help us gain a greater understanding of what ecology actually is. We were told to get into groups of 11-12 students. Once we had our groups, we were instructed to go to her for the necessary materials, which consisted of two different colored balls of yarn, scissors, an envelope, and tape. In the envelope, there were different organisms that we needed to create a food web out of. Our organisms consisted of the sun, algae, bacteria, owl, snake, duck, crane, fish, grass, and cricket. We were also given a list of vocabulary that would need to get written on the papers that had each organisms on them. Ten of us were assigned an organism, whereas the other two were the directors of the demo. The directors were in charge of getting the food web in order. 
The end result started with the sun, which then went to grass, and onto cricket, then owl, to snake, to duck, which went to fish, but also the crane, because the crane and duck eats fish. After fish it went to algae, bacteria and finally back to the sun. 

And this is the vocabulary we had to incorporate: 

STEM Challenge w/ Neto and Dragon Tales

We were instructed to make a water slide that would actually hold water, and allow a lego to slide down it.... uninjured (metaphorically). We had approximately forty-five minutes to make this happen, and knowing my group, this was going to be hard. Indeed it was, but we did it. We ended up being in the top three, because 1)It was actually waterproof and 2) our lego was only given minor injuries due to the convenient vehicle we placed him in. The other teams sent him down with nothing, they weren't waterproof or the very unfortunate lego would have been severely injured. 

Our wonderful and waterproof water slide. I say we did pretty good for the amount of supplies and time we had. 

If I were to change anything, I think it would be the transition between the two boards. This is where our poor Lego would have gotten innjured. It had a bit of a bump. We ran out of time as we were trying to fix it, so we had to leave it as it was. If I acquired any skills ftom this, it would be working collaboratively and working under pressure. 

DNA- Flipped Classroom w/ Neto

Topic: intro to dna

Questions and Key Points What has DNA? What is DNA? Macromolecules Structure of DNA Function of DNA How is its structure related to its function?

Class Notes Any living things- person, flower, tree A molecule- aka oxygen, hydrogen make up water molecule Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids Double helix, ladder format 4 nitrogenous bases- cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine Gene coding (eye color, hair color) DNA replication Codes for proteins (aka amino acids) The sequence of bases acts as info storage in the form of codes to build proteins The molecules are long to store information The base pairing means that complementary strands of information can be replicated The double helix gives the molecules stability Hydrogen bonds allow for easy unzipping for copying and reading information

Forensic DNA Lab- Who Done It?

Neto and Tucker have reason to believe that Romeo and Juliet's deaths were not suicides, but rather, a murder. We were given a total of eleven suspects, myself included(yikes). We then discussed in our mental health groups who we thought the murderer was. Once we came to a consensus we went on to reading the procedures and materials involved in the lab we were about to produce. We were instructed to create a "gel box" or better known as a gel electrophoresis chamber. This is to hold the nucleic acids, which are negatively charged, and  helps to separate the DNA and RNA into different sizes. 

Scientists at work. (We just wanted to get it done and see if our hypothesis was right.)

Suspect list:

Suspect #1: Friar Laurence

Suspect #2: Lady Capulet

Suspect #3: Montague

Suspect #4: Romeo

Suspect #5: Juliet

Suspect #6: Script writer

Suspect #7: Cue card holder & script writer

Suspect #8: Benvolio

Suspect #9: Paris

Suspect #10: Capulet

Suspect #11: Friar John

Purpose:

Who murdered Romeo and Juliet?

Hypothesis:

(literary)

1. If Friar Laurence wanted to bring the Capulets and the Montagues together then he could have killed Romeo and Juliet because the marriage was not going to work and he thought their deaths would bring the houses together.

(scientific)

     2.  If we test all of the suspect’s DNA, then we will find that Friar Lawrence is the     murderer, because his DNA will travel at the same speed as the killer’s DNA found in the murder scene.

Materials:

• 2 teaspoons 0.9 percent salt water
• Dixie cups
• 9 large test tubes (1 for each DNA sample)
• 15ml of palmolive detergent and 45ml of water
• 2 teaspoons 95 percent ethanol, cooled
• small test tube  (1 for each DNA sample)
• 5 μl methylene blue solution for each DNA sample (1 L of water to 2 ml of methylene blue)
• Pipette and disposable pipette tips
• Baking soda
• Deionized water
• Glycerin
• Cold 95%  Ethanol
• Micro test tube
• Hot plate
• Stir rod
• Micro pipette

Procedures:

Extracting DNA From Each Suspect

1. Murder suspect will complete this procedure.  Swish 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water in your mouth for 30 seconds. This amount of swishing will actually become quite laborious -- hang in there!

   

   One word: torturous. 

2. Spit the water into your cup.
3. Make your soap and water solution (enough for all your DNA samples) Using a large test tube containing 15 ml of liquid detergent to 45 ml of water
   
4. Take 5 ml of each sample of DNA that you plan on collecting and place them in their own test tube. Be sure to label each test tube carefully.
5. Add 5 ml of your mild detergent to each test tube.
   
6. Cap tube and gently rock it on its side for 3 minutes. The detergent will break open the cell membrane to release the DNA into the soap solution. Do not be too vigorous while mixing! DNA is a very long molecule. Physical abuse can break it into smaller fragments, a process known as shearing.
7. Open and slightly tilt the tube and pour 1 teaspoon (5 ml) of the chilled 95 percent ethanol down the side of the tube so that it forms a layer on the top of your soapy solution.
8. Allow tube to stand for 1 minute. Results should look similar to Sample #1.
9. Pull 0.25 ml DNA from the top of the test tube into a micro test tube. Your DNA should stay solid in this solution.
10. Using the disposable pipettes , add 0.25 ml methylene blue solution for each DNA sample
11. Add one drop of glycerin to DNA/methylene blue solution.  (Be sure all micro tubes are labeled clearly)

Making the Gel Box

1. The first step in the experiment is to make the buffer solution that you will use for both making the agarose gel and running the samples. The buffer should be a 1% solution of baking soda. To make this, combine 2 grams (g) of baking soda with 200 mL of bottled water in one of your bowls and stir
   1. well. (If you don't have a kitchen scale, 2 g of baking soda is approximately ½ teaspoon.)
   2. Make a 1% agarose gel solution by combining 1 g of agar powder with 100 mL of your buffer solution in a microwave-safe bowl. (If you don't have a kitchen scale, 1 g of agar is approximately ¼ teaspoon.)
   1. Heat the agar solution in a microwave to dissolve the powder. Stop the microwave every 10-15 seconds to stir the solution.
   2. When you see that the solution is starting to bubble, remove it from the microwave. The solution should be translucent. Make sure to watch the agar solution carefully and remove it promptly from the microwave; when it gets hot it will easily bubble over.
   3. Remove the stainless steel wire electrodes from the gel chamber.
   4. Insert the Styrofoam comb into either end of the gel chamber, leaving approximately 0.5 centimeters (cm) between the end of the box and the comb. Gently pour the agar solution into the gel chamber. Add just enough solution to the box so that the comb teeth are submerged approximately 0.5 cm. If the gel is too thick, it will be difficult to observe good separation of the food coloring dyes.
   5. Wait until the gel solidifies, which may take at least 30 minutes at room temperature. Tip: When the gel is set, it should be firm to the touch and wiggle like solid jello.
   
   
   
   Running the DNA
   1. Make new buffer solution: combine 2 grams (g) of baking soda with 200 mL of bottled water in one of your bowls and stir well.
   2. Pour your buffer solution over the solidified gel. Add enough buffer to submerge the gel.
   3. Gently pull the comb out of the gel. Be sure not to remove the comb until you are sure that the agarose gel is completely set. The resulting wells will be used as reservoirs for your samples.
   4. Using the butter knife, carefully cut a thin slice of the gel from the top and the bottom to make room for the electrodes.
   5. Re-attach the stainless steel wire electrodes.
   6. Using a micropipette, fill each well in the gel with a each suspects DNA solution
   7. Using the alligator clip leads, attach the battery pack to the wires resting on the gel chamber. The positive terminal of the battery pack should be connected to to the clip farthest away from the DNA samples.
   8. Before turning on your electricity double check with Neto. You will be setting machine to       150 V. BE SURE NOT TO TOUCH OR DISTURB BOX DURING THIS PROCESS.
   9. You should see bubbles forming around the electrodes in the buffer as the current passes through them.
   10. Consider using time-lapse to record your results.

       

       It was a failed experiment, but the efforts were substantive. 

Data table:

Suspects:	Length of DNA (cm)	Segment 1 (cm)	Segment 2 (cm)
Killer	3.00	1.45	2.3
Paris	1.00	1.73	2.75
Friar Laurence	3.00	1.45	2.3
Capulet	3.75	1.6	3
Montague	2.75	1.2	2.3
Lady Capulet	1.50	0.4	0.9
Juliet	2.00	1	1.3
Benvolio	1.75	0.7	1.05
Romeo	2.50	1	2.2

Identify the dependent and independent variable:

X: Suspect’s DNA

Y: Length of DNA

Graph:

Conclusion:

Friar Laurence was the one who killed Romeo and Juliet. Although the data was inconclusive, we used numbers we thought would suit this based on what we knew. We knew who the killer was, Friar Laurence. Based on the fact that we knew who the killer was, we knew that his DNA would have to line up to the killer’s DNA in order for it t0 be a match. In the graph and data, both the killer’s and Friar Laurence’s numbers match up. The DNA matches at 3.00 centimeters, segment 1 matches at 1.45 centimeters and segment 2 matches at 2.3 centimeters. This shows that the DNA was a perfect match. If it were not a match, the numbers would not have aligned. This would show that they were not the same person, meaning the killer was someone else.

Our hypothesis is correct. This is because we had thought Friar Laurence was the killer. The results then proved to us, by the DNA matching, that he was indeed the murderer. There were many errors in this lab. For starters, the wire we used was not stainless steel, so it caused rusting on the wire itself. Also, we left the comb in for too long, so when we pulled it out, the gel came with it. Next, when one of my group members was inserting the DNA into the gel box, he went too far, therefore puncturing it and making the DNA travel to the bottom. Another thing was the fact that we did not have restricted enzymes because they were too expensive.  The results were not at all conclusive. However, this held true for all of my classmates due to the variables we were all susceptible to, such as the wire and the comb. We could make it better, by first fixing the things that were messed up, and also making sure we have enough time and the right tools to complete the lab. Without the appropriate tools it will not be sufficiently completed, and like our lab, the results will be indeterminate. The results did not come through, so the are not exactly accurate, but we got data based on our previous knowledge.

Team DragonTales really, really tried. (P.S. Neto ruined our results, not us.)

Questions and Key Points Brain Part One Brain Part Two Cells in nervous system Function of a neuron Information they are carrying? Neurotransmitters?

Class Notes Humans proceed to make neurons throughout their lives in response to mental activity Bilingual children (before age of five) have a denser grey matter Excessive stress has been known to alter brain function, brain cells and brain structure Structure = function ↳giraffe can’t swim, dolphins can’t reach the top of trees Nerve cells (neurons) Surrounded by a membrane Have a nucleus Has mitochondria and cytoplasm Have specialized cell parts (dendrites and axons) Contain specialized structures ( synapses) and special chemicals (neurotransmitters) Communicate w each other through electrochemical process Cell body (soma):contains all the neurons Dendrites: brings information to the cell body (do not have myelin, several dendrites in each cell, rough) Axon: takes informations away from the cell body (each cell only has one axon, smooth, has myelin) Myelin- mixture of proteins and fat (phospholipids) insulating the axon around many neurons, increasing the speed at which impulses are conducted Electrical impulses that triggers the release of neurotransmitters Brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our body Ex: tell your heart to beat, stomach to digest, affects sleep, concentration, moods, and weight

Brain Anatomy Lab

My science teacher, Neto, assigned a new lab on the anatomy of the brain. We were handed a head of cauliflower, knives (yes, she was smart enough to hand knives to adolescents), a list of words we needed to define, and toothpicks along with paper. We were told to label each word we defined on the correct spot on the cauliflower, or as the very imaginative and inventive Neto had us call it, the brain. Once we had them all defined and labeled on our beautiful brains, she then told us to go with her. We, like the good students we are, followed happily and worriedly, since we didn't know what we got ourselves into this time. She set the brain on the counter. She grabbed a toy car and pushed it into the brain. This was to represent a car crash. She then took a knife and cut off a few frontal parts of our once lovely brain. She told us that we would be writing a narrative from either the doctor's point of view, the patient's or the parent's of the patient. The parts that were cut off were the cerebellum, parts of the brain stem and part of the frontal lobe. 

 “In his car accident, his brain made extreme contact with his skull. He is currently in a coma. He could be unconscious for anywhere from hours, days or weeks. His brain stem was damaged by this, which is connected to his spinal cord. This means the chances of Drake walking again are slim to none. If his brain swells any further than it already has, it could result in death. Also, at this point his talking will be impaired due to not only his damaged brain stem, but his damaged cerebellum, as well,” I say to Drake’s parents. I see the look of horror on their faces. His mother is grimacing in pain for her beloved son, and his father is clearly upset by my words, based on his reaction to them.

“But why? What will impair my sweet son’s speech,” his mother interrogates concerningly. Her husband is embracing her as the agony takes over her fragile body.

“Well, ma’am, the cerebellum, which was damaged in the car accident, is responsible for his balance, coordination and, as you asked about, his speech. His speech could potentially be impaired for weeks, months or years.” His mother’s face falls. Tears are viciously streaming down her face as her face scrunches up with each word that rolls off my tongue. I wait for a response and get nothing.

“As soon as he wakes up I will put him on medication for the pain. You can see him if you wish, but not for long.”

“What room, doctor? Take us there,” she states demandingly. I walk them to his room in a haunting silence. I leave them in there for ten minutes. I can see them through the window. His mother is hugging him, kissing him, holding his hand, crying him a river. His father is standing there holding his hand. I can tell he is trying not to cry. His brown eyes are tearing up. As they are getting ready to leave his room, I motion to them to come over to me. “

“For the brain stem, I will need to prescribe medication. If it is bad enough, which it doesn’t seem to be, he may need surgery. Also, based on the damage to the cerebellum, which is not extremely severe, if he does walk again, he will be unbalanced and he will sway when, and if he does walk again after physical therapy. He will also not be able to decipher distance as well as we do. His movements will be slower and less functioning. His muscles will be weaker, speech will be slurred, as I mentioned before, and he may have odd eye movements. I also looked over his file. It looks like he got a minor injury to his frontal lobe. This could affect his ability to memorize things. The frontal lobe is also the emotional control center, as people call it. This means that it controls the emotions and behaviors like impulse control, judgement and social and sexual behavior. It also controls things that the cerebellum controls such as major motor functions. The damage to the frontal lobe could also make his mannerisms more childlike due to his inability to critically think,” I state in a rather informative manner.

“What can we do to help him, doctor,” his mother asks me attentively.

“Well, since he will not be able to do so many things that he could previously do, he will need a lot of help moving around. I would suggest hiring a caregiver to be in his presence at all times for his constant care. I strongly suggest speech therapy and physical therapy. Come for checkups once every month. Once I see an improvement, we can move it to once every two months.”

“Thank you so much. We appreciate everything you are doing for Drake and us. Is there anything else we should know?”

“As of right now, no. You know everything that I do. I will let you know if anything else comes up. And it’s my pleasure. I am so sorry this happened.”

Iron Chef Lab: Strawberries vs. Enzymes 

My science teacher, Neto, decided to do her own take on the Iron Chef Food Network show. We were given boxes with various items. In my groups box there were two containers of strawberries, one with organic and one with conventional. From there we had research about our items. After the research we conducted the actual lab. We wrote out our purpose, hypothesis and procedures. We then completed the actual lab. This mainly just resulted in a whole lot of mold and a very pungent and haunting smell, but really not much data.

Purpose- 

How do the strawberries (conventional and organic) dissolve in amylase, pectinase and water?

Hypothesis-

If 20 organic and conventional strawberries were dropped into beakers of pectinase, amylase, amylase/pectinase and water until they dissolved, then the organic strawberries will dissolve better in the amylase, because the preservatives and chemicals in the conventional strawberries will not be compatible with the enzymes, and therefore unable to undergo chemical digestion.

Materials- 

• 24 g Conventional Strawberries

• 24 g Organic Strawberries (no pesticides)

• 1 scale

• 8 beakers
• 24g amylase 
• 24g pectinase 

Procedures-

1.Label all the beakers with their assigned name (org. Amylase, organic pectinase, conv. Pectinase, conv. Water, conv. Pectinase and amylase, organic water, organic pectinase and amylase, conv. amylase)

2. Measure pectinase and amylase in scale as 24 g

3. Measure distilled water in all beakers as 300 ml

4. Measure out 8 grams of pectinase, 8 grams of amylase, two beakers with 4 grams amylase and  grams of pectinase each, then 2 beakers left empty

5. Add the 300 mL of distilled water to each beaker

6. Take off the stem of the strawberries

7. Measure the strawberries to 18g for all of the strawberries to  be the same

8. If the strawberries are not 18g exactly, cut off the extra grams to eliminate the excess grams

9. Take both 4 organic and 4 conventional strawberries and put them in their corresponding container

10.Put  beakers filled with pectinase and amylase in the store room, hidden from the light

11.Measure the displacement

12.Record the data that you see as the effects take place

This is the data table that represents the data that my group and I collected. 

Mushroom King Presentation

"Eat Wild, Be Wild."

Mushrooms are extremely controversial. You either like them, or you don't. But my class and I had the pleasure to get a presentation done by The Mushroom King and get further knowledge on mushrooms. I personally hate mushrooms. I always have, but it was still fun learning about it.

Fun Facts From the Presentation:

• There are three thousand different types of mushrooms in California. 
• Truffles actually grow underground. 
• It's necessary for truffles to get eaten to spread their seeds. 
• Not only do truffles absorb water, but also chemicals.
• Salt causes salivation. 
• Rain promotes mushroom growth.
• Mushrooms are decomposers and aid the breaking down of organisms to turn to soil. 
• Mushrooms are actually capable of breaking down plastic.
• Saprophytic means to feed on wood. 
• Taki means mushroom in Japanese. 
• Mushrooms can actually have medicinal properties, studies show.
  
   

                                                                                    

Cellular Respiration Shown Through... Baking?

There are three steps to cellular respiration. It begins with glycolysis, then it moves into the citric acid cycle, otherwise known as the kreb cycle, then moves onto the electron transport chain. The primary goal of this new topic we'll be looking at is to take sugar and oxygen and create ATP out of it.

What is ATP?

ATP is the energy that cells utilize in order to function, because just like us, they need energy!

For the ATP we used mini chocolate cupcakes. This is because like food gives us energy, ATP gives the cells energy.

 First Step- Glycolysis: 

This is the initial breakdown of sugar molecules. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm, the jelly, gooey- like substance that is found inside a cell. In order for the breakdown to occur, it takes two ATP, but in turn the system creates four ATP. Cool, huh? You get more out of it than you put in. In the end it produces pyruvate and, of course, the aforementioned ATP. These are what set you up for the next step, the Kreb cycle.
                                 

The cake mix was used as the sugar molecule. The eggs were used as the cytoplasm because they're similar in consistency. 

Second Step: The Krebs Cycle or The Citric Acid Cycle 

This is the second step of cellular respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria. The input to create the Krebs Cycle came from Glycolysis. The product of the Krebs Cycle is carbon dioxide, H+ and ATP. It also needs oxygen to actually work its way through the process. Also known as it being aerobic. The Krebs Cycle has a coenzyme, NAD+ that helps transport H+ (hydrogen). It then turns into NADH, which will then move onto the next step, The Electron Transport Chain. 

We used the whisk to represent the cycle because it moves in a circular motion, like a cycle. We used the batter as the H+ and the scooper as the NAD+. 

Third Step: The Electronic Transport Chain

This can be thought of as a factory line, and a factory line for ATP synthase in particular. The Electronic Transport Chain takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The input to activate this came from the previous step, The Krebs Cycle. The output is ATP. The number of ATP ranges anywhere from twenty-four to thirty-two. This also needs oxygen to work, meaning it is aerobic like The Krebs Cycle. It has an enzyme, ATP synthase. It takes the substrate H+ and ADP+P1 to create ATP. The H+ pass through the proteins using a proton gradient. As a secondary result, it produces water.

                                                                               

Imitation Creation of Poop- How is Poo Made?

By: Amelia Hermosillo

Pooping is undoubtedly habitual. We eat food, we digest it, we poop it out. But let's discuss the steps of the making of this peculiar, yet common, "poop."

First Step- The Mouth: 

 Here, the food you ingest is mixed with saliva and broken down. Your tongue and teeth, particularly your molars and incisors, breakdown the food. This is known as a mechanical breakdown. The tongue mixes saliva into the equation as an extra systematic breakdown tool.

In this we used a bowl and put a cup of noodles, a little bit of apples, Chef Boyardee, and some marshmallows and honey. Once it was in the bowl we utilized various objects to act as the molars and incisors to breakdown the food.

Second Step- The Esophagus:

In the previous step, the food was lubricated by saliva. This not only was to breakdown the food being consumed, but also to make the act of swallowing easier. The esophagus is the tube connecting your throat and your stomach. It has muscles that create harmonized waves to push the food into your stomach. It works methodically to get your food from your esophagus to your stomach. The muscles in the esophagus contract to push the food forward and the muscles ahead of it will loosen to make the traveling and swallowing of it effortless. Once it reaches the bottom of the esophagus, a muscle valve, called the esophageal sphincter, feels pressure and releases the food into the stomach.

For this we used a paper towel roll to symbolize the tubular shape of the esophagus.

Third Step- The Stomach:

The muscles in the stomach break down the food into smaller pieces. These muscles produce enzymes and stomach acid. These enzymes and stomach acids turn the food into a paste-like consistency called chyme. The stomach muscles then contract to shove the chyme to the small intestine. The food goes into the small intestine through a valve called the pylorus. This only releases a small amount of food at a time.

We used a bag to represent the stomach because it acts as a storage object. Nothing goes in or out if it's sealed, which is the same as the stomach. We put three different liquids which acted as enzymes and stomach acids and mixed them in with the food.

Fourth Step- The Small Intestine:

It starts with the digestive juices sent from your liver, pancreas and gallbladder to finalize the digestion. The pancreas makes enzymes to break down the carbohydrates, fats and proteins from your foods. The liver creates bile to digest fats. It then gets turned into smaller fragment of nutrients, which are then absorbed.

For this we used nylons to symbolize the small intestine because it allowed the "nutrients", or in this lab, the liquids, go through it to leave the waste behind.

Fifth Step- The Large Intestine:  

The large intestine connects the small intestine to the rectum. What remains after the nutrient absorption is waste, water and electrolytes. This waste moves into your colon by a bunch of wave-like contractions. It starts out in the large intestine as a liquid but then turns into a solid due to the water being taken into the large intestine.

We used a sock with a hole at the end of it to show the large intestine because it could absorb excess and and get the remaining waste out through the bottom.

Sixth Step- The Rectum:

From the large intestine to the rectum: out goes the waste in the form of fecal matter, otherwise known as poop. 

Now you're knowledgeable on how poop is made! Go tell your friends you know how that icky, not so mysterious, brown stuff that comes out of their booties are made.